![3D"Interfaz](3D"4.TurreroFaber_archivos/image001.jpg")
![3D"Cuadro](3D"4.TurreroFaber_archivos/image086.gif")
The Effect of Emotional Affect=
in
L2 Lexical Learning
El
efecto de la afectación emocional en el aprendizaje léxico de=
una
lengua segunda
=
=
María
=
Drew
University
=
mturrerogarcia@drew.edu
=
=
Andie Faber
=
Princeton University
=
afaber@princeton.edu
=
RESUMEN
Estudios anteriores han revelado que las pal=
abras
con contenido emocional tienen un efecto facilitador para la memoria de los
hablantes tanto de primera como de segunda lengua. Este estudio investiga
cómo el cariz emocional de una historia, activado a través de
señales audiovisuales, afecta la adquisición de elementos
léxicos nuevos en hablantes de español como segunda lengua. L=
os
resultados de una tarea de Asignación de Imagen y una de Nombramiento
sugieren que los contextos emocionales positivos tienen un efecto facilitad=
or
para el reconocimiento y posterior evocación de los elementos meta en
comparación con contextos emocionales neutros y negativos. Para la
pedagogía de L2, estos resultados sugieren que la adquisición=
y
retención léxica se puede mejorar a través de la
incorporación de materiales didácticos con un componente
emocional positivo.
Pala=
bras
clave: Adquisición de Segunda Lengua, Lingüística Aplica=
da, Emociones,
Aprendizaje Léxico
ABSTRACT
Previous
studies have found a facilitative memory
effect for emotional content words in both L1 =
and L2 speakers. The present study investigates how
emotional affect, activated through visual and auditory cues, effects L2
Spanish speakers’ acquisition of novel lexical items. Data from Pictu=
re
Matching and Naming tasks suggest that positive emotional context has a
facilitative effect on learners’ recognition and recall of target ite=
ms
when compared to the emotionally neutral or negative contexts. The implicat=
ion
of these results in L2 pedagogy suggests that lexical acquisition and reten=
tion
can be enhanced by the incorporation of course materials with a positive
emotional drive.
Keywords: Second Language Acquisition, Applied Linguistics, Emotions,
Lexical Learning
1. INTRODUCTION
O=
ver
the past several decades, the relationship between affect and cognition,
development, and general learning has received increasing attention (Mandler, 1989; Pekrun, 19=
92; Forgas, 2008; Fiedler & Beie=
r,
2014). In the field of Second Language Acquisition, the role of affect has
primarily focused on the effect of motivation and anxiety (Krashen, 1982; G=
ardner,
1985, 2007; Dewaele, 2002; Dörnyei,
1998, 2009; Ellis, 2015). In more recent years, there has been an additional
focus on the acquisition and processing of the semantic content of emotional
words by L1, L2 and simultaneous bilingual speakers (A=
nooshian
& Hertel, 1994; Altarriba & Bauer, 2004=
; Dewaele, 2008; Pavlenko, =
2008; Ayiçiçegi(-Dinn)
& (Caldwell-)Harris, 2004, 2009; Lindquist et al., 2015). However, litt=
le
work has been done investigating the emotional context of the environment
during language learning. To begin to fill this gap, the current study
investigates lexical learning by a group of low-intermediate L1 English-L2
Spanish students in one of three emotional contexts: positive, negative, or
neutral. Participants are then tested on their recognition and recall of the
test words and the results from each emotional context are compared.=
2. &nbs=
p; PREVIOUS
STUDIES
2.1 &nb=
sp; Affect
and Learning
M=
uch
of the research investigating affect and general learning ability has focus=
ed
on feelings such as anxiety, stress, frustration, fluency, or achievement t=
hat
arise as a result of students’ internal reactions to a learning task.=
In
general, research has found that there is no one-sided answer as to whether
optimal learning occurs in positive or negative affective states. Joëls et al. (2006) suggest that stress can have=
both
facilitating and impairing influences on learning and memory, asserting that
stress will only facilitate learning and memory when it is experienced in t=
he
context and at the time of the event that needs to be remembered and when t=
he
hormones and transmitters released in response to stress exert their action=
s on
the same circuits as those activated by the situation. In short, the stress
must be directly associated with that which is to be learned.
Pekrun (2014)
asserts that affective states, whether positive or negative, can have varia=
ble
effects on learning. Positive and negative affective states can have the ef=
fect
of drawing learners’ attention away from their task performance and
toward the emotion itself, thus reducing overall learning outcomes.
Additionally, negative affective states, such as anxiety and shame can also
reduce interest and intrinsic motivation as well as lower learners’
ability to use flexible thought and action. However, these negative affecti=
ve
states can also have the opposite effect, inducing motivation to invest eff=
ort
in order to avoid failure. Positive affective states, such as enjoyment or
excitement, can facilitate learning when they are task-related; this is to =
say,
if a learner feels enjoyment from engaging in the task itself, the task bec=
omes
the object of their emotion and their attention is drawn to it. This can al=
so
increase learners’ interest and motivation, resulting in positive
learning outcomes.
While much
research has been conducted concerning affect as it relates to student feel=
ings
that result from the learning task (Fiedler & Beie=
r,
2014), it is also important to take into consideration the emotional tone of
the material itself and the way it is presented. The broaden-and-build theo=
ry
(Fredrickson, 1998, 2001; Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005) suggests that
positive emotions broaden the scopes of attention, cognition, and action,
resulting in a facilitatory effect on learning outcomes because learners pu=
rsue
a wider range of thoughts and actions, such as playing, exploring, savoring,
and integrating their experiences. Conversely, negative emotions shrink the
array of percepts, thoughts, and actions.
2.2 &nb=
sp; Affect
and SLA
In
the realm of Second Language Acquisition, motivation has long been identifi=
ed
as an important factor for successful learning outcomes (Krashen, 1982;
Gardner, 1985; Dörnyei, 1998) and there is=
a
general consensus that motivation and positive affect are reliable predicto=
rs
of high achievement among second language (L2) students (Gardner, 2007;
In
more recent years, researchers have taken an interest in the relationship
between emotions and language. Such research has served to put forward the
notion that language plays a role in emotions as it supports that conceptual
knowledge necessary to make meaning of sensations from the body and the wor=
ld
in a given context (Lindquist et al., 2015). Many bilingual speakers report
experiencing stronger emotions when using their first language as compared =
to
their second language (Pavlenko, 2005) and often
prefer to use their second language to maintain emotional distance, finding=
it
easier to express anxiety-arousing or taboo topics when operating in their
non-native language (Altarriba & Santiago-R=
ivera,
1994; Harris, Ayiçiçegi & Gle=
ason,
2003; Dewaele, 2004).
Pavlenko
(2008) asserts that in the bilingual mental lexicon emotion words should be
considered to be a separate class, represented and processed differently fr=
om
both concrete and abstract word classes. Moreover, concepts of emotions can
vary across languages, resulting in possible divergence between bilingual a=
nd
monolingual speakers’ emotional conceptions. Numerous studies have fo=
und
that emotion and emotion-laden words are better recalled than neutral words=
in
various languages and among monolingual and bilingual speakers (Rubin &
Friendly, 1986; Anooshian & Hertel, 1994; <=
span
class=3DSpellE>Altarriba & Bauer, 2004; Tal=
mi
& Moscovitch, 2004; Ay=
içiçegi
& Harris, 2004; Ayiçiçegi-Dinn
& Caldwell-Harris, 2009).
S=
imilarly,
results from Anooshian and Hertel (1994) indica=
te
that emotion and emotion-laden words are better recalled by bilingual
Spanish-English speakers; however, this result was only present in their L1,
regardless of whether that be Spanish or English. On the other hand, Ayiçiçegi & Harris (2004) find supe=
rior
memory for emotion words in recall and recognition tasks in both the L1 and=
L2
of bilingual speakers of Turkish and English; in fact, they identify that t=
he
overall memory effect was stronger in the speakers’ L2, particularly =
with
stimuli that have a negative connotation. Results from Ayiçiçegi-Dinn
& Caldwell-Harris (2009) indicate that words’ emotional attributes
are processed to a similar extent in both first and second languages; in bo=
th
languages, taboo words have the highest rates of recall, followed by words =
with
positive connotations. There was no recall advantage for negative words over
neutral words in either the L1 or L2. Iacozza e=
t al.
(2017) investigate neutral and negative contexts in first and second langua=
ge
speakers. They find no difference between L1 and L2 in explicit ratings of
emotionality; however, in nervous system reactionary responses, measured by
pupil size, L2 speakers show less reaction to negative contexts than their =
L1
counterparts.
3. &nbs=
p; MOTIVATION
T=
he
goal of this study is to investigate how emotional bias affects lexical
learning in L2 Spanish. The aim is to see if the emotion-memory effects
attested in the literature extend beyond the semantic content of the words
themselves. To that end, this study employs the use of nonce (i.e., invente=
d)
words, which serve two important functions: (1) the use of nonce words ensu=
res
that all participants have had the exact same exposure to the words that ar=
e to
be tested, eliminating the possibility that some students may have previous=
ly
learned these words in a different context; and (2) by using nonce words, i=
t is
possible to test the same story and lexical items across all conditions und=
er
study. Potential implicit emotional biases are avoided as there are no
associations with previous experience to be drawn from the target items and
considering that the semantic content of the test words is null, the resear=
chers
are able to isolate emotional context from the semantic drive of the lexical
items. The =
current study aims
to investigate the following questions:
- Does the presence of any emotional bias (whether positive or
negative) facilitate lexical learning over the absence of emotional bi=
as
(emotionally neutral stimulus) in L2 Spanish speakers?
- Are positive emotional stimuli better predictors of L2 Spanish
learner success in comparison to negative emotional stimuli?
- Is the effect of emotional bias of the stimuli the same for nov=
el
word recognition as compared to novel word recall?
W=
ith
these questions in mind, the researchers have put forward the following
hypotheses for the study:
H=
ypothesis
1: the presence of an emotional bias of any kind facilitates lexical acquis=
ition
in comparison to a neutral situation with no emotional tilt.
T=
here
is considerable research suggesting that positive affect is facilitative to
second language learning (Gardner, 2007; Arnold, 2009; Dörnyei,
2009; Ellis, 2015). As such, our prediction is that the positive condition =
of
our study will produce the greatest learning outcomes.
H=
ypothesis
2: for stories presented with an emotional tilt, positive emotional imagery=
and
intonation will facilitate lexical learning among L2 Spanish learners when
compared to negative affective conditions.
C=
onsidering
the large body of research that has found that both positive and negative
emotional semantic content facilitates recall and recognition (Rubin &
Friendly, 1986; Anooshian & Hertel, 1994; <=
span
class=3DSpellE>Altarriba & Bauer, 2004; Tal=
mi
& Moscovitch, 2004; Ay=
içiçegi
& Harris, 2004), we predict that if we remove the semantic content of t=
he
lexical items, but maintain the emotional drive, the emotion-memory effect =
will
remain.
H=
ypothesis
3: the effect of the emotional bias in the story will be the same for
recognition and recall of the novel words.
F=
ollowing
the results from Ayiçiçegi & =
Harris
(2004) for emotional content words, where there was a similar emotion-memory
effect found for recall and recognition tasks, we predict to find similar
effects for memory and emotional bias in our recognition and recall tasks.<=
/span>
4.
METHODOLOGY
4=
.1 Pa=
rticipants
T=
wenty-seven
non-native speakers of Spanish participated in the study. All participants =
were
enrolled in a second-semester Spanish class at an American university. This
study was conducted at the end of the semester; students were assessed thro=
ugh
an informal interview with the experimenter and through classroom assessmen=
t by
their instructor, and those who had achieved an ACTFL level of Intermediate=
Low
in all language skills were included as part of the experimental data. After
this selection criterion was applied, 23 participants remained.
Participation in the study was voluntary, and all participants comple=
ted
a Language Background Questionnaire referring to their experiences with Spa=
nish
and with other languages before completing the experimental tasks.
4.2 &nb=
sp; Procedure
T=
he
study consists of two separate tasks: a Picture
Matching Task and a Picture Naming Task (Matching and Naming hereafter). Bo=
th
tasks relate to a common story, presented below. The story contains 11 nonce
words. It was created specifically to be as neutral in meaning as possible,=
so
that three conditions could be created from it: a Positive condition, a
Negative condition, and a Neutral condition. Participants were randomly
assigned to one of the three conditions (positive condition: n=3D8; neutral
condition: n=3D7; negative condition: n=3D8). Said conditions were implemen=
ted
through the use of specific emotionally charged intonation and through the =
use
of emotion-triggering images (see Appendix). All conditions were presented =
to
native speakers of Spanish for confirmation of the perceived emotional bias
before conducting the study. Additionally, each participant was asked to ju=
dge
the emotional undertone of the story after both tasks were completed.
Story:
Era un día muy
<=
span
style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> =
T=
ranslation:
It was=
a very sojable day. The birds were chirping and the
world seemed to be zorato.
Pepe, who lived in a terulo
in the town, woke up very garente. He didn’t know that day his life would ch=
ange
forever. He went to the window next to the jufena and, looking outwar=
d, he
saw the plini=
co
in the distance. So he left and went to see Sara, who worked in the turina. =
Together
they decided to start their colfante plan. First, they made the gasicho. When they finishe=
d, it
looked really mifesco.
And since then, the town would never be the same. It would forever be a much
more rapristo=
place.=
<=
span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>
As
seen in the story, all nonce words were nouns or adjectives matched for
syllable length and phonotactically Spanish. Ea=
ch
version of the story was pre-recorded in a PowerPoint presentation and pres=
ented
auditorily. Each novel word was reinforced with a visual and textual
presentation: it appeared written on the screen with an associated image. B=
oth
cues disappeared after 1 second.
<=
span
style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> =
Example
1 below shows three distinct versions of visual stimuli used for each
Condition. In this case, the word Mifesco is
illustrated. For a complete list of the imagery associated with each nonce
word, see Appendix. =
;
(=
1)
Visual stimuli associated with the nonce word mifesco.
|
Positive |
|
Neutral |
|
|
|
|
|
|
![3D"https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/Xg5gdP0hnJ74svsZAzQ8ssLsiYaM272i=](3D"4.TurreroFaber_archivos/image087.gif")
![3D"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/Rh_6uhXsHime7xC_heoOLSqd_4gmpuNV=](3D"4.TurreroFaber_archivos/image088.gif")
![3D"https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/0liWKrjA6nfUseNhnHxCZ5eDMtgOeST0=](3D"4.TurreroFaber_archivos/image089.gif")
In
the Matching task, participants initially saw a slide with all images from =
the
story on it. One by one, the nonce words would appear on the screen for a
second, and participants would point to the image associated with each word=
.
T=
he
Naming task started with all images on the screen as well. In this case,
participants would be asked to use the nonce words they remembered to name =
as
many of the images as they could. The experiment was organized as follows:<=
/span>
1. &nb=
sp; Participants
watched the presentation/listened to the story twice.
2. &nb=
sp; Participants
completed the Matching task.
3. &nb=
sp; Participants
watched the presentation/listened to the story without graphic presentation of the words once.
4. &nb=
sp; Participants
completed the Naming task.
5. &nb=
sp; Participants
were asked to provide their perception of the story as positive, negative or
neutral.
P=
articipants
provided strictly oral responses to each task. Responses to each task were
recorded by the experimenter for further coding and analysis.
4.2.1. Rating
Study
A rating study
was conducted using an emotion wheel based on Feldman Barret & Russell
(1998) to ensure the reliability of the stimuli as positive, neutral, or
negative. Participants saw the images used as experimental stimuli and chos=
e a
minimum of one and a maximum of three adjectives used in the emotion wheel =
to
describe each image. The emotions displayed in the wheel varied in valence
(horizontal axis) and arousal (vertical axis), as seen in Figure 1.
![](3D"4.TurreroFaber_archivos/image090.gif")
Figure 1. Emotion wheel
9 native spea=
kers
of Spanish participated in this study. The data were coded and analyzed bas=
ed
on whether participants’ reaction to each image matched the
experimenters’ intended emotion in valence, arousal, or both. Results from this rating show part=
icipants
are highly perceptive of the intended emotions shown by the images, as 95% =
of
participant responses matched either the intended valence or arousal of the
images. When breaking down both categories, participants seem more sensitiv=
e to
arousal distinctions (74.25% match between the intended and perceived arous=
al)
than to valence distinctions (68.6% match), but both sets of results are we=
ll
above chance, as the difference between matching and non-matching responses=
is
highly significant for both valence and arousal data (two-sample t-tests p =
<
0.0001). Figure 2 below summarizes the results obtained
for this task.
![3DChart](3D"4.TurreroFaber_archivos/image091.gif")
Figure 2. Rating Task Results
4.3 &nb=
sp; Coding
C=
oding
for the Matching Task was described as either Target or Non-Target based on
whether participants associated the correct image with each of the words th=
at
appeared individually on the screen. Since the Naming Task requires oral
production, there is more variability in participants’ responses. Tab=
le 1
shows an example of the existing coding categories for this part of the stu=
dy.
|
Target |
Partial Target |
Off-Target |
Not Attempted |
|
Mifesco |
Modesco |
Different item: Rapristo |
Participant said they did not remember |
<= o:p>
Table I. Naming Task coding examples
T=
arget
and Partial Target responses are grouped together for analysis under the la=
bel
“Target”, and Off-Target and Not Attempted responses are
categorized together as “Non-target”. This decision was made on=
the
basis of the cognitive demands of the task: the authors recognize that the
exact phonetic realization of each nonce word may not be perfect, but Parti=
al
Target responses show that participants have retained a general representat=
ion
of the word (all Partial Target responses consist of at most two mis-rememb=
ered
phonemes in the word).
<=
span
style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>5.&n=
bsp;
RESULTS
5=
.1 Ma=
tching
Task
O=
verall,
participants performed at a high accuracy level in the Matching Task in all
conditions, indicating that the task was appropriately gauged for their lev=
el
of Spanish. All nouns are matched at a rate of 70% or higher in all conditi=
ons
(specifically, 80% for positive and Neutral presentations and 71% for
negative). However, there seems to be a slight disadvantage to the negative
condition, as seen in Figure 3.
![3D"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/rnzYGqLQZ-mLs_xK8rsWR_KY7EWmekw3Og=](3D"4.TurreroFaber_archivos/image092.gif")
<=
o:p>
Figure 3. Matching task results
A
one-way ANOVA revealed a statistically significant difference between
conditions (F(2,20)=3D19.684,
p< .0001). A Tukey pos=
t hoc
test showed that the scores for target responses in the negative condition =
were
significantly lower than in the Neutral (p=3D.001)
and positive (p=3D.001). There =
was no
statistically significant difference between the Neutral and positive
conditions (p>.05).
5.2 &nb=
sp; Naming
Task
<= o:p>
T=
he
results of the Naming Task show an advantage for the positive Condition over
the Neutral and Negative conditions. Accuracy in the positive Condition rea=
ches
86% for this group of speakers, whereas the Negative and Neutral conditions=
are
both below 75% (at 72% and 74%, respectively).
![3D"https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/5u0q_4yjPXLtf15HNjGbxnocJe0ivApUy1=](3D"4.TurreroFaber_archivos/image093.gif")
Figure 4. Naming task results
T=
here
was a statistically significant difference between conditions as determined=
by
one-way ANOVA (=
F(2,20)
=3D 32.1718, p < .001). A Tu=
key post
hoc test revealed that the scores obtained for the positive condition were
statistically significantly higher than those of the Neutral (
p < .001) and Negativ=
e (p < .001) conditions. There was=
no
statistically significant difference between the Neutral and Negative
conditions (p =3D .469).=
W=
hen
intra-task comparisons are made, the positive condition shows an overall
advantage over the remaining two. While participants’ responses are m=
ost
on target in the positive category, there is a decline in accuracy in the
Neutral one. “Negative” consistently displays the lowest scores=
in
both tasks, with no improvement or decline for either exercise.
![3D"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/DwdhWiaQmqI9rxWGH4t8jT0lMWG2KFFmXy=](3D"4.TurreroFaber_archivos/image094.gif")
Figure 5. Matching and Naming task comparison results<=
/span>
6. &nbs=
p; DISCUSSION
T=
he
results of these experiments show a clear advantage of the positive conditi=
on
in both tasks. Solely changing the emotional character of the images and
intonation has a significant impact on L2 learners’ recall and
recognition of novel words. These results suggest that lexical learning and
retention are most facilitated when taught with materials that elicit a
positive emotional affect. This finding aligns with previous studies that c=
laim
that high motivation and positive affect favor second language acquisition
(Gardner, 2007; Arnold, 2009; Dörnyei, 200=
9;
Ellis, 2015). Negative intonation and imagery, on the other hand, have a
negative impact on the response patterns presented by this group of speaker=
s.
Participants overall attained high accuracy rates in the Matching task;
however, even in this task it can be seen that the negative condition resul=
ts
in a cost to lexical recall. While speakers still show an above-chance matc=
hing
capacity, the fact that the scores are significantly lower suggests that it=
is
not the use of any emotion that=
can
facilitate lexical learning and retention, but specifically the use of
positive, happiness-evoking tones and images. The data in this study, thus,
broaden our understanding of affect in Second Language Acquisition, extendi=
ng
assertions that positive affect is associated with positive language-learni=
ng
outcomes beyond feelings to the=
realm
of emotions. Likewise, where pr=
evious
research has stated that negative affect such as anxiety and stress have a
negative impact on language learning outcomes (Krashen, 1982; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994), this research has fou=
nd
that negative emotions in pedagogical materials can have a similar effect.<=
/span>
T=
here
are clear pedagogical implications for these results in the creation and
implementation of classroom materials, particularly in methods to introduce=
new
vocabulary in the language class. This research provides data-driven eviden=
ce
of the importance of providing students with a positive environment that
transpires not only from the professor’s attitude, but also from the
materials that they are exposed to, particularly in audiovisual resources w=
here
the emotional affect is provided for the student rather than student-genera=
ted,
as it may be in a reading activity.
W=
hile
accuracy rates for positive and negative conditions remain relatively const=
ant
between the two tasks, the Neutral condition presents a decline in accuracy
from the Matching to the Naming task. This seems to suggest that while a
neutral story is not detrimental to word association, it does not facilitate
lexical encoding to the same extent as the positive condition. This could
potentially be explained in reference to the Yerkes-Dodson Law (Yerkes &
Dodson 1908, Cohen 2011), which states that over- or under- arousal reduces=
behavioral
task performance. Therefore, it is plausible that the stimuli for the Neutr=
al
condition are not arousing enough for this set of participants. However, the
Yerkes-Dodson Law falls short in explaining the task comparison: if the sti=
muli
are under-arousing, this effect should be visible in both tasks. Further st=
udy
is necessary at this point to specifically test the Yerkes-Dodson Law and i=
ts
relationship to lexical learning in emotional conditions. In futu=
re
studies it would be prudent to investigate further the impact of neutral
T=
he
difference between the matching and naming tasks in the Neutral version of =
the
story seems to suggest the presence of an interpretation/production asymmet=
ry
in the learning of nonce words when produced with a lack of emotional affec=
t.
Said asymmetry, studied by authors such as Conroy and =
Lidz
(2007) or Pickering and Garrod (2013), has been explored in the field of L1=
and
L2 acquisition with somewhat conflicting results (although a general consen=
sus
seems to indicate that production tends to be more conservative than
interpretation). However, to the authors’ knowledge, this asymmetry h=
as
never been studied with regards to how emotions link to language acquisitio=
n.
Although this was beyond the scope of the current article, future research
should address how these two aspects of L2 acquisition (the comprehension/p=
roduction
asymmetry and emotions) interact.
7. &nbs=
p; CONCLUSIONS
T=
he
overall finding that new content presented with a positive emotional drive =
is
recognized and recalled better than content presented in a neutral or negat=
ive
emotional context contributes to work on affect in SLA, extending our
understanding of how positive and negative affect effect language learning.=
The
results from the current study suggest the importance the role of affect may
play in the classroom beyond motivation and anxiety. As such, the aut=
hors
propose that the next steps in this research should be dedicated to emotion=
al
affect in language instruction and classroom material design. Additionally,
this study would benefit from an investigation of upper intermediate and
advanced L2 learners as well as delayed post-test tasks to determine if the
facilitation of emotionally positive contexts persists beyond the initial t=
ask.
Finally, this research should aim to continue to expand the investigation of
affect and SLA. Looking at a wider variety of positive and negative emotion=
s,
such as active emotional states (e.g., excitement and anger) and passive
emotional states (e.g., depression and contentment) would allow for a more
nuanced understanding of how emotional presentation affects learning. This
could be accomplished by developing methodologies that focus on learners=
217;
emotional interpretation of a story in conjunction with learning task
objectives.
<=
span
style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> =
In
considering the classroom, the results presented in this study are not mean=
t to
suggest that language instructors should avoid serious topics such as natur=
al
disasters or current events that may be negative. Rather, instructors should
strive to create an overall positive classroom atmosphere that,=
as
the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 1998, 2001) suggests, allows
students to broaden their thought-action repertoires to engage meaningfully
with the course material. In discussing more se=
rious
topics that may stir negative affect, it may be beneficial to conclude the
discussion with an optimistic spin by investigating potential solutions or
discussing organizations that work to combat the problem. Iacozza
et al. (2017) suggest that learning a foreign language in a formal academic
environment does not provide the context for L2 speakers to establish strong
bonds between their L2 and emotional content. The results reported in this
study suggest that teaching language with an emotional tilt may facilitate
lexical learning. Taking these results together, it seems clear that develo=
ping
course materials that take emotional context into account is advantageous f=
or
the development of competent L2 speakers.
=
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<= o:p>
<= o:p>
<= o:p>
A=
ppendix.
Image stimulus by word for each experimental condition.
|
|
Positive condition |
Negative condition |
Neutral condition |
|
Sojable |
|
|
|
|
Zorato |
|
|
|
|
Terulo |
|
|
|
|
Garente |
|
|
|
|
Jufena |
|
|
|
|
Plinico |
|
|
|
|
Turina |
|
|
|
|
Colfante |
|
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|
Gasicho |
|
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Mifesco |
|
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|
|
Rapristo |
|
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|
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