Inclusive occupational multiliteracies for migrants: a systematic
review
Multiliteracidades laborales inclusivas para los migrantes: una
revisión sistemática
Esther Cores-Bilbao
Universidad Isabel I
esther.cores@ui1.es
ABSTRACT
As in previous decades, demographic, financial and market forces continue to drive the
increased migration inflows to recipient countries. Humanitarian reasons are, in turn, currently
becoming the main impetus for migrants, who oftentimes flee situations of extreme
vulnerability and distress in their countries of origin. The uprooting caused by forced migration
must be met with efforts to support migrants’ emotional regrounding in host communities.
Such integration greatly depends on social and economic inclusion, especially through access
to quality employment opportunities.
This paper examines contributions from previous research exploring a range of literacies aimed
at securing employment and navigating the new socio-cultural employment scenarios that are
presented to migrants. The results point to the inherent value of learning the vehicular
language spoken in the recipient country, in combination with other literacies, referred to here
as Inclusive Occupational Multiliteracies (IOM), among which the socio-affective domain also
takes a substantial underlying role.
Keywords: multiliteracies, migrants, occupational literacy, language learning, inclusion
RESUMEN
Al igual que en décadas anteriores, las causas demográficas, financieras y de mercado siguen
impulsando el aumento de los flujos migratorios hacia los países receptores. A su vez, los
motivos humanitarios se están convirtiendo en el principal impulso para los migrantes, que a
menudo huyen de situaciones de extrema vulnerabilidad y angustia en sus países de origen.
El desarraigo provocado por la migración forzosa debe ser abordado con iniciativas para
apoyar el arraigo emocional de los migrantes en las comunidades de acogida. Esta integración
depende en gran medida de la inclusión social y económica, especialmente a través del acceso
a oportunidades de empleo de calidad.
Este artículo examina las contribuciones de investigaciones anteriores que exploran diferentes
alfabetizaciones destinadas a procurar un empleo y navegar por los nuevos escenarios
socioculturales laborales que se les presentan a los migrantes. Los resultados apuntan al valor
inherente del aprendizaje de la lengua vehicular hablada en el país receptor, en combinación
con otras alfabetizaciones, denominadas aquí Multiliteracidades Laborales Inclusivas (MLI),
entre las que el ámbito socioafectivo también desempeña un papel subyacente significativo.
Palabras clave: multiliteracidades, migrantes, alfabetización laboral, aprendizaje de lenguas, inclusión
Revista Nebrija de Lingüística Aplicada a la Enseñanza de Lenguas (RNAEL) ISSN 1699-6569
Vol. 16 Núm. 33 (2022) doi: 10.26378/rnlael1633499
Recibido: 28/08/2022 / Aprobado: 1/12/2022
Publicado bajo licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento Sin Obra Derivada 4.0 Internacional
1. INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of migration, whether originating from socioeconomic and work-
related grounds or from natural or man-made crises, has increasingly demanded
educational interventions to facilitate the successful integration of migrants into the
host communities.Feelings of uprootedness, social isolation, alienation and loss of
self-identity are among the gravest threats to those who have been forced to leave
their homeland and culture behind in search of more favourable living conditions
elsewhere (Schlechter et al. 2021). Among the competences to remove sociocultural
barriers and to thrive in an unfamiliar setting, it is communicative competence,
encompassing linguistic knowledge, but also social practices, attitudes and values
related to textual, visual, symbolic, numerical and technological media usage in the
community, that stand out as paramount (Casanova and Mavrou 2019).
The successful integration of migrants is thus heavily dependent on a range of
associated processes, such as their social inclusion or additional language acquisition
and, most notably, on their access to employment opportunities (Brell et al. 2020).
In particular, the ability to engage communicatively in social interactions, producing
spontaneous narratives within professional contexts becomes a “precious social
currency” for migrants (Holmes and Marra 2011: 512). Conversely, unintended
linguistic and cultural transgressions in the workplace might reinforce pre-existing
biases of employers and co-workers, with negative consequences for the integration
of the migrant worker (Holmes and Marra 2011).
The holistic view of literacy as a situated social practice which comprises learners'
social, occupational and personal spheres is the basis of the New London Group's
pedagogy of multiliteracies (1996). In this regard, the multiliteracies paradigm lends
itself to the development of “occupational conscientization and occupational
consciousness including the ability to read images and contextual features, such as
geography and the built environment” (Townsend 2015: 397) and is therefore suited
to accommodate a range of training opportunities for migrants. Moreover, the
potential interplay between the needs of people who have been displaced from their
communities and places of origin and the multiliteracies framework can underpin
culturally responsive pedagogy and the implementation of inclusive teaching and
learning (Watts-Taffe 2022) in which cultural diversity and individual difference are
valued. However, despite the original centrality of working life and citizenship as two
of the three domains of individuals' lives upon which the social change pursued by a
multiliteracies approach is based (New London Group 1996: 64-69), additional
language courses developed for professional migrants, whether they be general
language learning or vocational language programmes, seem to follow largely
conventional code-based and print-based teaching methodologies (Rossner 2008),
lacking sufficient resources and strategies for the targeted education for illiterate or
partially literate persons (Blommaert et al 2006).
With the aim of exploring both the state of play of occupational instruction for
migrants and the feasibility of adopting educational strategies that further advance
their linguistic and professional inclusion, the remainder of the text is organised as
follows: i) the theoretical principles around which the Inclusive Occupational
Multiliteracies (IOM) proposition is built will be briefly discussed; ii) prior research on
educational initiatives pursuing the linguistic and occupational integration of migrants
will be reviewed systematically for exploratory purposes, in order to bring forward
evidence of delivery in this field, with a particular focus on current attempts to
inculcate the multiliteracies approach in the context under study; iii) strategic
proposals for harnessing the potential of multiliteracies instruction, which align with
the pursued goals of inclusion, will be presented.
2. THEORETICAL FRAME
The concept of multiliteracies proposed by the New London Group (1996) has been
endorsed with similar acclaim by scholars and language teaching practitioners alike
since its inception. Numerous studies have delved into the connections between
multiliteracies-based teaching approaches and the perceptions and assumptions of
individual learners, trainers, and language course providers (Tan and McWilliam
2009). Although research on this pedagogy has been conducted mainly for the school-
aged segment of the population, there is a growing consensus within the scientific
community that multiliteracies might equally stimulate a more critical approach to
adult lifelong learning (Holloway and Gouthro 2020), which in turn might advance the
social cohesion and inclusion policy agenda that underpins European education
policies (Guo 2010).
According to the principles of multiliteracies pedagogy, education must be
committed to embedding multimodality, cultural plurality, technology, and a spirit of
social justice through the acquisition of language, which is inherently socially
constructed, power-charged and shaped by context (Holloway and Qaisi 2022). The
valorisation of the potential social capital that each individual may contribute to their
peer group, as well as the appreciation of individual differences as an asset, are also
essential elements of this approach, the ultimate goal of educational efforts being to
enable learners’ diverse capabilities to thrive “for democratic, inclusive citizenship in
an occupationally just world” (Townsend 2015: 398).
Competency in the language of the receiving society is deemed to be one of the
central features of successful integration and the main tool to boost migrants' sense
of agency and to spur social interaction and participation (Pulinx and Van Avermaet
2017). The theoretical framework of multiliteracies posits that the linguistic mode, in
conjunction with and integrated into other modes of communication, is at the core of
innovative teaching and learning experiences (Holloway and Gouthro 2019). Even
though reading and writing are essential means of communication, multimodality
seeks to extend the traditional scope of literacy to a broader spectrum of media. In
this sense, multimodality in the foreign language classroom refers to blending two or
more modes of communication - visual, oral, written, gestural, tactile, or spatial - to
convey meaning (Dolzhich and Dmitrichenkova 2019). Against this backdrop, the
benefits invoked by advocates of the multimodal approach seem highly desirable, as
it prepares learners for dealing with unpredictable events and complex information
sources, thus developing their critical mindset, and offering meaningful and culturally
contextualised learning opportunities, as well prompting a feeling of group
membership and belongingness. Furthermore, multiliteracies and multimodality
provide opportunities to engage marginalised learners (Holloway and Gouthro 2020)
and allow for greater versatility in meaning-making practices.
While recent well-documented previous studies focus on adult migrants' second
language literacy, their scope is generally limited to the development of a particular
skill or language activity, thereby leaving aside the breadth of angles that
multiliteracies instruction can draw on, such as learning issues pertaining to
globalisation, diversity, and the impact of new technologies (Holloway and Gouthro
2020). Thus, the existing contributions on adult migrant literacy in additional
languages concern predominantly the influence of literacy-based instruction on
reading comprehension and appreciation of literary texts (Reyes Torres and Bataller
Català 2019) or its effectiveness in improving written production in a second or
additional language (Casanova and Mavrou 2019). Nevertheless, albeit secondarily,
current publications such as those of Reyes Torres and Bataller Català (2019) or
Casanova and Mavrou (2019) also address the multimodality of inputs used in
multiliteracies instruction for adults.
Educational provision aimed at migrants is often informal and non-formal in nature
(Hanemann 2021), and typically linked to the invaluable humanitarian and
educational support provided by NGOs volunteers, such as university students, pre-
service teachers, retirees, and non-professional practitioners who lack the
methodological tools and didactic materials required to optimise the effectiveness of
their instructional efforts. Moreover, these programmes respond in a standardised
manner to individuals with very different personal and academic profiles (Rossner
2008), ranging from illiterate speakers of other languages and written codes, whose
cultural traditions are predominantly oral in nature, to highly qualified individuals
holding tertiary education degrees in their countries of origin, many of whom already
have multilingual competence in several languages.
Despite the demographic differences in the population studied, the findings
reported by Willis Allen and Paesani (2010: 137) that “multiliteracies instruction is
not just feasible but essential to the relevance” of introductory-level foreign language
courses for adult learners are considered by the author to be generalisable to the
migrant population. In this regard, however, it is the central contribution of Townsend
(2015) and her formulation of the notion of Critical Occupational Literacy that has laid
the theoretical foundation on which this paper is grounded. Arguing for the need to
operationalise “identifiable, shared literacy skills, such as being able to decode the
alphabet, distinguish between friendly and aggressive language, and assess the moral
implications of everyday actions” Townsend (2015: 391) concludes that explicitly
designed critical occupational literacy skills learning would engage a wide “range of
researchers, educators and community members in public dialogues and decision-
making about occupational experiences” (Townsend 2015: 393)
It is therefore worth exploring the extent to which the multi-modal and multiliteracy
perspective have been implemented in the field of education for migrants and identify
areas where their delivery might be further consolidated.
3. METHOD AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
A probing literature review was chosen as the basis for the examination of the corpus
produced around the theoretical framework of occupational multiliteracies for adult
migrant learners. It was decided to focus on qualitative and mixed-method studies,
in which both information on the teaching methodologies applied and the narrative
accounts of the migrants involved in the training processes would be collected. Given
the tight links of the study area with programme documents originating from
European education authorities, it was also decided to incorporate the relevant grey
literature into the pooling.
From the preliminary exploration set out in the introductory sections above, the
following research questions guide the analysis and synthesis of the research body:
• What literacy/literacies are prevalent in occupational language courses for mi-
grants?
• Which aspects of the multiliteracies pedagogy have generally been integrated into
workplace language training courses for migrants?
• To what extent has the multimodal approach permeated the methodologies fol-
lowed in these training opportunities?
The data collection procedure included six distinct steps, namely 1) a Boolean query
formulated bibliographic search of scientific databases (ERIC, SCOPUS and WoS), 2)
the incorporation of sources resulting from manual query, 3) the screening of
duplicates, 4) the exclusion of non-relevant studies, on the basis of the information
contained on their titles and abstracts 5) the full text examination of the remaining
papers and 6) the quality assessment of the shortlisted studies. To optimise the
prospects of retrieving relevant results, multiple targeted keywords were combined
in the automated database query. However, as can be inferred from table 1, the
inclusion of the term ‘multiliteracies’ for fine-tuning the searches yielded zero results
in every database search.
ERIC
SCOPUS
WoS
“Migrant adults”
403
17,797
--
AND “workplace”
15
312
--
AND “2nd language learning”
0
2
4,205
AND “multiliteracies”
0
0
0
Table 1. Initial search criteria applied in database and manual searches
A first unexpected finding, therefore, was the absence of published work explicitly
addressing the pedagogy of multiliteracies in contexts of additional language
education for adult migrants, as will be discussed in more detail below. It was
therefore decided to replicate the desktop search, replacing the term ‘workplace’ as
a keyword by ‘professional’, then by ‘vocational’, and other standard terms in the
literature in order to ensure the retrieval of all available relevant studies, in
conjunction with the term ‘literacy’ and its plural variation ‘literacies’. This broadening
of the search criteria resulted in 52 potential citations. Figure 1 illustrates the stages
followed in the streamlining of these database and hand search results, leading to 32
manuscripts whose full text was subsequently screened.
Figure 1. Data search and corpus retrieval process
Finally, the Mixed Methods Assessment Tool (MMAT) (Hong et al. 2018) was used
to ensure the quality of the papers included in the corpus, resulting in a corpus of 15
compliant studies. For the analysis and systematisation of the data, each work in the
sample has been assigned a codename, as indicated in Appendix I.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Descriptive profiling of the sample
In terms of the nature of the training models described in the studies, over two thirds
of the sample comprise research on migrant trainees who aspire to access the labour
market, while only three of the studies describe on-the-job training or in-house
professional advancement (S7, S9 and S12). Thus, latter studies contextualise
learning in real professional environments, either by having participating migrants log
“their everyday workplace talk” (S7: 515), undergo participant observation (S9), or
by reporting on employers’ perceptions across a variety of sectors (S9).
Among the most salient characteristics identified in the corpus as a whole, research
on this subject has been carried out predominantly through a qualitative
methodology, applying ethnographic techniques (preliminary interviews, role plays,
retrospective interviews, etc). Only one study (S5) followed a different methodology,
based on Critical Discourse Analysis (examining meaning, coherence, and structure
of the text) of three Canadian Government Agencies policy texts.
The most prominent professional sectors researched are those related to service
provision in healthcare, childcare and elderly caregiving, as well as domestic work.
The population under study in the corpus is predominantly made up of female
employees in entry-level positions, with few possibilities for upgrading or long- term
employment. However, initiatives aiming to deconstruct gender segregation in the
labour market (S1) by incorporating roughly equal numbers of male and female
participants in the two work-related educational tracks (cleaning / services and health
/ social care), stand out. Many of these studies also consider the cultures of origin of
these migrant women and the reverse phenomenon (S12), with the return of these
workers to their places of origin.
For the most part, the studies report the point of view of the women workers,
although some texts also incorporate the perspective of employers (S1, S7, S9 and
S13), training providers (S4, S6 and S15) and policy makers (S5). In general, this is
a low-skilled labour force, although there are exceptions where migrant women are
highly educated (S3, S7, S9 and S12). The countries of origin are countries in Asia
Minor, traditional migrant-sending countries such as Latin America and the Caribbean.
Figure 2 visually displays the regions where the research was conducted. One
quarter of the studies in the sample were undertaken in Australia and New Zealand
(S3, S6, S7, S8, S9, S15), indicating that these countries have been particularly
engaged in researching this issue.
Figure 2. Geographical distribution of studies sampled in the corpus
The following section presents the results obtained from the textual and conceptual
information analysis of the papers that make up the corpus.
4.2 Thematic analysis of the research corpus
4.2.1 Explicit and tacit literacies
The topical analysis of the corpus led to the identification of 7 thematic clusters. Due
to the preliminary result mentioned in the previous section, notably that no study
expressly alluded to the pedagogy of multiliteracies, the ensuing mapping of the data
is based on the comparison of the literacies expressly mentioned in the corpus and
those literacies which can be inferred from the narrative content of the studies, albeit
tacitly.
Table 2 records the seven literacy domains used for the classification of the content
covered in the different studies.
THEMATIC AREAS
CULTL
Cultural Literacy
DIGL
Digital Literacy
SAL
Socio-Affective Literacy
CIVL
Civic Literacy
LANGL
Linguistic Literacy
VISL
Visual Literacy
OCCL
Occupational
Table 2. Thematic categorisation areas
4.2.2 Explicitly alluded literacies
Table 3 shows the topics covered in the keywords, abstracts, and section headings of
the papers, as well as those explicitly covered in the discussion of their results. In
addition, the categories recorded in Table 3 summarise, from a conceptual point of
view, the topics that were the subject of planned educational initiatives aimed at their
further development in each of the studies analysed.
Among the first results that can be visually ascertained is that multiple literacies
are dealt with in all the samples of the corpus. Due to the criterion selection of the
studies, all but four papers (S7, S10, S13 and S15) explicitly mention concepts related
to job-related literacy in conjunction with second or additional language literacy. Sixty
percent of the studies allude to aspects of awareness of the customs, values, beliefs,
and cultural conventions of the host communities, most often in connection with
pragmatic and linguistic learning outcomes. Therefore, the research efforts of authors
in this field seem to revolve around migrants’ employability, their capacity to achieve
and develop proper rapport in the workplace, and the various aspects of culture
(awareness of the host culture and of the company culture being the most recurrent
ones) around such interactions.
Technological and social aspects are next in terms of prevalence in the sample. The
prominence of digital resources and devices as a medium for instruction or as a
working tool is highlighted in twenty percent of the sample, and similarly, the
empowerment of workers, peer community support and access to citizenship status
is explicitly developed in a similar percentage of the studies. This emerging attention
to areas aligned with the 2030 Agenda and the European Education Area, such as
improving citizens' abilities and ICT competency for the digitalisation of social and
work processes, or raising their civic engagement and democratic awareness, is
primarily found in most recent research (S4, S11, S15), with only one study (S2)
dating back to 2007.
Table 3. Literacies expressly considered in the research corpus
4.2.3 Types of literacy tacitly discussed
It should be noted that in some cases, the references considered for the recording of
implicit literacies in this section, as presented in Table 4, are very tangential. In this
sense, the mere acknowledgement of the digital divide which has a bearing on
migrant students’ performance, for example, has been factored in when determining
the coverage of Digital Literacy in the studies.
These literacies are generally expressed in terms of perceived necessities
expressed by migrants or their potential employers, or desirable traits for a successful
inclusion in the target society, but they are not linked to any formal, informal or non-
formal training programme reported in the studies. Thus, this comparison will bring
to the surface the difference between the deliberate and incidental learning observed
by the corpus authors.
Table 4. Literacies tangentially discussed in the research corpus
Consequently, when comparing Tables 3 and 4, it becomes clear that there is an
underlying discrepancy between the learning needs of the target population, which
are addressed in an incidental way, and the desired educational goals of literacy that
the interventions aim to achieve.
In view of the above, the first research question guiding this exploratory study,
concerning the prevailing literacies in occupational language courses for migrants,
could be addressed from a twofold perspective: those literacies that are branded as
such by educational researchers and training providers for adult migrants, like
linguistic, cultural, digital or occupational literacy, feature prominently in the reports
of the findings made; however, other literacies while being ubiquitous in the day-to-
day lives of the target population, permeate the literature thematically but are not
formally foregrounded.
As regards the second research question, concerning the elements of the pedagogy
of multiliteracies that are embedded in workplace language education for migrants,
there are two key areas which concern respectively the private domain and the
citizenship domain of learners, namely socio-emotional literacy and civic literacy. For
instance, S2 points to the importance of migrant domestic workers developing
empowering strategies to cope with work-related stresses and strains, adopting
proactive attitudes to challenge labour exploitation. This study similarly finds that
education "is used by domestic workers as a way of coping with these inadequacies,
of surviving the stressors" (Cuban 2007: 4). In this sense, awareness-raising through
educational interventions to break out of their isolation equip migrants to “move into
a public position of influence" (ibid: 5) through their community, recognising an
agentic sense of self and giving voice to their social positions and views, within the
existing tensions of power and privilege, as well as in relation to their work experience
(ibid: 7). Another emotional domain developed is that of the students' own self-
concept, and thus Morel (2018) examines how the trainees struggled to overcome
more intimate difficulties, linked to their lack of self-esteem and poor confidence in
themselves and their abilities, which could manifest as forgetfulness, detachment and
lack of concentration.
From a social perspective, number of studies (S3, S4, S5, S9, S10) report the
importance of community of peers for emotional support and for successful learning
outcomes, given the affordances it provides to interact with others (S6), practise the
additional target language and to establish and maintain social networks and
satisfying relationships with co-workers (S8).
In terms of civic literacy, language training is oftentimes linked to access to certain
public welfare services such as health care, social care (S1), access to community
resources and community participation (S2), deploy political and citizenship skills and
strategies which are “crucial for constructive decision-making” (Dabic 2008: 9) or
manage travel and immigration paperwork (S11).
Regarding the third research question, the multimodal approach is rarely
mentioned in the sample, and integration of visual literacy principles and non-text-
based images in lesson plans is identified in only twenty percent of the corpus. Thus,
Cuban (2007) describes programmes in the community for the inclusion of migrant
domestic workers which utilise visual aids such as videos, DVDs and cards, while Morel
(2019) notes their usability in scenarios of illiteracy but some oral proficiency in the
target language, where conversations and interactions in class can be triggered by
iconographic documents that are readily available on the Internet.
A very notable contribution in this respect is Hastwell, Strauss and Kell’s (2013)
study on the training of workers in a supermarket chain, in which the need to expand
educators' conception of what qualifies as a text is raised. Among the examples cited
that would be suitable as visual material supporting situated learning are “product
packaging and identification; pricing labels; barcodes; order forms; stock control
databases; quality assurance forms and checklists; pays- lips and leave forms” (ibid:
78). By way of illustration, these authors allude to the case of Rula, a neo-literate
employee who is able to discern between various magazines being sold in the
supermarket based not only on their titles, but on their appearance and the use of
"different semiotic systems and non-textual images: their size, the type of cover
image(s) and the quality of their paper" (ibid: 85), in addition to the specific section
in which they are displayed.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The first conclusion of this paper confirms Townsend’s (2015) observations
concerning the need to define terms that capture critical occupational literacies and
to mainstream them among teaching professionals working with disadvantaged
collectives. Therefore, the position of this article converges with Kluzerand and Rissola
(2009) in arguing that policymakers should support the successful integration of
migrants into the labour market by better aligning their competences to the job
functions to be performed, thereby "democratising the Lisbon goal of ‘better
employment´"(ibid: 75).
Similarly, it appears obvious that efforts to disseminate the pedagogy of
multiliteracies among those who are involved in the teaching of adults, particularly
migrants, are still required. The potential of this approach coupled with multimodal
stimulus-based instruction does not seem to be reaching the everyday practice of
adult education or the training of those groups that could benefit most from greater
social inclusion.
A second conclusion that emerges from the findings of this study is the necessity
of a reworking and extension of the paradigm proposed by the New London group
(1996), that would build the socio-affective dimension into the multiliteracies
approach. This conclusion opens up promising opportunities for future research.
For both of these very reasons, we have proposed the umbrella term Inclusive
Occupational Multiliteracies (IOM), as it captures both the multifaceted nature of the
knowledge, skills and competences which are required to fulfil a job in a given
environment, whilst encapsulating the need for a didactic approach akin to that
proposed by the New London Group yet suited to present-day instructional media.
Consequently, as lines of future research, we propose to open new avenues of inquiry
to determine the extent to which the multiliteracies approach has the potential for
dealing with the changing service sector jobs and for overcoming the downward
occupational mobility of migrants, as put forth by Strömmer (2017), as well as to
chart which of the analysed literacies, and to what degree of proficiency, are required
for entry-level jobs, or for the career advancement of migrant workers.
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APPENDIX I. SYSTEMATISATION OF STUDIES IN THE CORPUS
CONTRIBUTOR(S) / YEAR OF PUBLICATION
Benerdal, M. (2021)
Cuban, S. (2007)
Dabic, S. (2008)
De Paepe, L. et al. (2018)
Gibb T.L. (2008)
Hastwell K. et al. (2013)
Holmes, J. & Marra, M. (2011)
Holmes, J. & Riddiford, N. (2011)
Hunter, J. (2012)
Morel, A. (2018)
North, A. (2017)
Otomo, R. (2020)
Pundziuviene, D. et al. (2020)
Strömmer, M. (2017)
Tour, E. et. al. (2021)