<= o:p>
Revista Nebrija =
de
Lingüística Aplicada a la Enseñanza de Lenguas (RNAEL) IS=
SN
1699-6569<=
o:p> Vol. 16 Núm.=
32
(2022) =
doi: 10.26378/rnlael1=
632463 Recibido:
30/01/2022 / Aprobado: 20/03/2022 Publicado bajo licencia de Creative Commons
Reconocimiento Sin Obra Derivada 4.0 Internacional
Students’
understanding of different text types: strategies to identify and enhance
students’ conceptual understanding
La
comprensión de los estudiantes de los diferentes tipos de texto: estrategias
para identificar y mejorar la comprensión conceptual de los estudiantes
ABSTRACT
This article
evaluates students’ conceptual understanding using the think-aloud method. =
The
participants, four students who were studying the last year of the Spanish =
ab
initio course in an international school in Prague, volunteered to take par=
t in
the think-aloud protocols. The results show that the think-aloud method hel=
ps
to get a better sense of students’ understanding of different text types.
Keywords: think-alo=
ud,
ab initio, Spanish, text types, conceptual understanding
RESUMEN
Este artículo evalúa la comprensión concep=
tual
de los estudiantes mediante el método de pensamiento en voz alta. Los
participantes, cuatro estudiantes que cursaban el último año del curso ab
initio de español en un colegio internacional de Praga, se ofrecieron a
participar en los protocolos de pensamiento en voz alta. Los resultados
muestran que el método de pensamiento en voz alta ayuda a tener una mejor i=
dea
de la comprensión de los estudiantes de diferentes tipos de texto.
Palabras clave: pensar en voz
alta, principiantes, español, tipos de texto, comprensión conceptual
1.
INTRODUCTION
In this study we will evaluate
students’ conceptual understanding using the think-aloud method. Understand=
ing
will be measured based on research findings of the following questions: What
are students’ understanding of different text types? Why is it important to
teach different text types in the classroom and how is it taught? Are these
efficient ways of teaching text comprehension? Does the think-aloud method =
help
to get a better sense of students’ understanding? What evidence of
understanding does think-aloud provide?
Findings will help evaluate to w=
hat
extent using think-aloud activities can be beneficial to improve teaching
practices around genre within the Language ab initio IB course. Looking at =
the
framework adopted by IB, it is very important for language acquisition cour=
ses
to understand and demonstrate conceptual understanding because it allows
students to develop both disciplinary and interdisciplinary understanding.
Students need to understand the meaning of the task in =
order
to apply the appropriate register and tone to the context, choose th=
e correct
text type for the purpose and audience and incorporate conventions of the
chosen text type. The think-aloud method could be an
effective technique to model how to use
comprehension strategies before, during and after reading the tas=
k.
The application of this method can help students to learn through the proce=
ss
of sharing ideas and answering the teacher’s questions. Not only makes them
internalise the dialogue and reflect on the task, but it also lets the teac=
her
monitor the students’ comprehension and knowledge. For Piaget (pp. 123-128,
Barnes, 1992) learners must ‘construct’ models of the world, but the
experiences on which they are based do not come from nowhere. They are
responses to activities and talk that they have shared with other members o=
f the
community.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
=
There are
different ways of learning but without perception and understanding, studen=
ts
would not be able to comprehend anything. Understanding is a continuum proc=
ess
where senders and receivers of spoken or written messages modify or acquire=
new
knowledge. Learning more about how students =
think and process information helps teachers to
gain a better understanding and allows them to develop new techniques of
helping students to deal with their learning difficulties.
According to
Bakhtin (1986), understanding is essentially a dialogic process because lif=
e is
dialogic and a shared event. For Vygotsky (pp. 123-128, Barnes, 1992) people
learn to participate not only in activities but also in the meanings which
inform them.
However, understanding, which can occur in dialogue, is a more complex =
and
extensive cognitive activity. It requires critical thinking, learning and
problem solving. The ability to think critically about a concept is what he=
lp
us to evaluate the accuracy and truthfulness of statements and information =
we
read and hear. For Locke (1960), understanding is based on experience, it i=
s a
form of mental representation. Schulz (2018) also argues in his book Efficient Cognition that
representational decision making is more cognitively efficient than non-rep=
resentational
decision making. Considering Locke and Schulz’s arguments, using mental
representations of the context, the intended audience and purpose, provides=
a
way to help to accurately describe details and deliver the message effectiv=
ely.
This way, learners develop a deeper understanding of a text than when they =
just
process words, phrases, and clauses in the text (Bos, L.T., de Koning, B.B.,
van Wesel, F. et al.2015).
Some studies
(Broer, Aarnoutse, Kieviet & Leeuwe, 2002) show that teachers in primary
education provide little guidance on reading comprehension and studying.
Although students are given the opportunity to practise reading strategies,
they are often not taught actual approaches to reading. The same happens wi=
th
text production. Students need to be provided more direct guidance to write
successfully. There is evidence that mental representations are needed to, =
for
example, tell a story or identify a theme in it. They also enhance writing
descriptions or idea generation in creative writing work (Bos, L.T., de Kon=
ing,
B.B., van Wesel, F. et al.2015). Therefore, it is very important to use
effective strategies in the classroom in order to help
students to increase their reading comprehension, text production and criti=
cal
thinking. For example, the think-aloud strategy used in this study has been
identified as an effective instructional tool because it fosters the
development of critical thinking and involves the articulation of the think=
ing
process by helping students to clarify their mental representation of the
situation under consideration. It also requires the learner to stop
periodically, to reflect on how a text is being processed and understood, a=
nd
to relate orally what reading strategies are being employed (Baumann,
Seifert-Kessell & Jones, 1992; Block & Israel, 2004). Molly Ness (2=
016)
explores in her investigation how to better prepare early career teachers to
conduct think-aloud in their classrooms. She says that an essential element=
in
teaching children to effectively comprehend text is the use of
teacher-led-think-aloud. Wilhelm (2001) describes the process including the
following steps:
Another
recommendation is to make predictions, develop mental images, link prior
There are a f=
ew
factors like content, form, intended audience, medium or channel, that
influence the nature and construction of a genre; however, it is primarily
characterised by the communicative purposes that it is intended to fulfil
(Bhatia V. K., 2014). Bhatia suggests to consider some of the following ste=
ps
in order to undertake a comprehensive investigation of any genre: know the
layout of the personal and professional text types, define the speaker/writ=
er
of the text, the audience, their relationship and their goals, identify the
topic/subject/extra-textual reality which the text is trying to represent,
study the conventions (linguistic, social, cultural, academic, professional)
that govern the use of language in such institutional settings. V. K. Bhatia
(2014) also proposes to place the genre-text in a situational context by
looking at one’s prior knowledge or experience of the world. Bhatia’s steps
have been applied in this investigation as the structural aspects of texts
plays an important role in text comprehension and enables the learner to
identify the main ideas of the texts. Research under primary and secondary
school children shows that learners can understand and remember texts in a
better way if they have knowledge of different text structures (Broer,
Aarnoutse, Kieviet & Leeuwe, 2002).
In order to investigate =
students’
understanding of text types, it is important to consider that one of the
objectives in language acquisition courses in the IB diploma programme is to
understand, analyse and reflect upon a range of written, audio, visual and
audio-visual texts. Students can address this objective by demonstrating th=
eir
conceptual understanding, for example, by responding appropriately in writt=
en
tasks using a variety of text types and developing a coherent and organised
response on a range of topics. Looking at the Language ab initio =
guide
(IBO, 2020), learning language through
●Audience: students understand =
that
language should be appropriate for the person(s) with whom one is
communicating.
●Context: students understand t=
hat
language should be appropriate to the situation in which one is communicati=
ng.
●Purpose: students understand t=
hat
language should be appropriate to achieve a desired intention, goal or resu=
lt
when communicating.
●Meaning: students understand t=
hat
language is used in a range of ways to communicate a message.
●Variation: students understand
that differences exist within a given language, and that speakers of a given
language are generally able to understand each other.
Boyd and Ikpe=
ze
(2007) examined one seventh-grade teacher’s instructional approach for teac=
hing
students about the integration of Little Rock’s Central High School by using
multiple text types to enhance their conceptual understandings. Their findi=
ngs
suggest the teacher’s use of multiple text types required a systematic and
strategic juxtaposition of texts along with questioning, resulting in a
teacher-centred
approach.
Nevertheless, a teacher-centred approach neither facilitates nor empowers a
learner’s autonomous study-skills and subsequently lifelong learning skills=
(Trilling
& Fadel, 2009). If students want to know and understand the appropriate
purpose, audience and register of texts, multiple text types must be review=
ed
and observed from different angles and taught in a way where students
collaborate and communicate with one another.
=
3. RESEARCH DESIGN
3.1 Method
T=
he
think-aloud method was used in this qualitative research in
order to answer the questions of this study and maintain and improve=
the
cognitive abilities of the participants. This method is most suited since the research involved
descriptive and explanatory questions to understand students’ cognitive
processes. Using the think-aloud strategy helped to monitor students’ think=
ing
as they read different tasks and improved their comprehension of the task by
explaining the thoughts and ideas that came to their minds.
The think-alo=
ud
method is considered as one of the most effective ways to assess higher-lev=
el
thinking processes as it allows to capture the individual’s immediate thoug=
hts
(Özcan, Imamoglu & Katmer Bayrakli, 2017). It also helps to determine
specific areas of weakness in students processing skills, different types of
errors and strategies used during problem solving. Özcan, Imamoglu and Katm=
er
Bayrakli (2017) used the think-aloud method in their study to investigate
students’ mathematical problem-solving processes and their performance at
solving the problem. According to these authors, using the think-aloud meth=
od
to investigate students' mathematical problem-solving processes empowered t=
he
result of their study. They also suggested that thinking-aloud could be use=
d as
a teaching method. Sönmez and Sulak (2018) examined the effect of the
thinking-aloud strategy on the reading comprehension skills of 4th grade
primary school students. According to their findings, the teaching of the
thinking-aloud strategy developed the reading comprehension skills of the s=
tudents.
However, there are some studies that question the validity of data obtained
from think-aloud. As claimed by Someren, Barnard and Sandberg (1994), the
think-aloud method introduces two threats to the validity of the verbal
processes: incompleteness due to synchronisation problems and invalidity du=
e to
problems with working memory. Therefore, a written assessment was integrate=
d in
this study as well in order to collect more accu=
rate
data and analyse it in a proper way.
3.2 Sample
Four particip=
ants
were involved in this study who were selected from an International School =
in
Prague, Czech Republic. The participants were students from year 13 who have
been studying Spanish ab initio and preparing for the IB examinations in May
2021. The age of the participants was 17 years.
3.3 Data
collection and procedure
Due to the
COVID-19 pandemic, the think-aloud session had to be conducted by zoom and
students were put in two break-out rooms to work in pairs. Each session las=
ted
10 minutes approximately. First, as Gibson (1997) suggests, students were g=
iven
some guidance about the think-aloud process to reduce the ‘cold start effec=
t’
and encourage them to take part in the research and achieve and produce the
expected outcomes. The think-aloud process was recorded and transcribed whi=
ch
helped not only to identify the information that was concentrated on during=
the
discussion, but also to have a better understanding of students’ responses =
and
thinking processes. According to Hopkins (1995), recording is one of the mo=
st
popular teacher research methods and the transcripts were excellent for this
situation because it was a particular interaction between the teacher and t=
wo
students. The recordings were used=
only
for the purpose of this study. Students were given a past Spanish ab initio
paper that consisted of a writing task of 70-150 words from a choice of thr=
ee
tasks and a choice of three text types for each task. In pairs, students we=
re
given time to think-aloud and choose the correct text type for each writing
option. There were some guided questions that students needed to answer and
that helped them to make decisions when undertaking the task. The questions
were as follows:
−Which text type do you think is
more appropriate for the context, purpose and
audience?
−Do you need to use formal or
informal language?
−Who is the audience?
−What are some of the conventio=
ns
you need to use for the chosen text type?
It has been
proven in other studies that without some demonstrations and practice stude=
nts
may not report their thought processes frequently or thoroughly enough to m=
eet
the researcher’s needs. Thus, the strategy of retrospective questioning
encouraged effective think-aloud responses. Sugirin (1999) used a KEEP TALK=
ING
sign to remind participants to verbalise all thoughts without addressing th=
em
in speech which might interfere with those thoughts (Charters E., 2003).
Students were just remained to think aloud by using hand signals and inform=
al
written notes were taken about what was being verbalised.
After this
initial investigation, students were asked to complete the writing task to =
see
if they had demonstrated further understanding. The collection of this data
allowed for comparison of the results and for more complete information
(Fonteyn M., Kuipers B., Grobe S., 1993).
3.4 Ethics
Some ethical
issues could have arisen because the study took place in a school-setting a=
nd
involved the participation of students of 17 years old. The areas of ethical
concern were: the informed consent process, anon=
ymity
and confidentiality. In order to prevent these i=
ssues,
it was necessary to use an assent protocol and ask for consent. The Principal and students were informed via email about t=
he
investigation for their consent and approval. In order =
to
protect students’ privacy and ensure their anonymity, no personal data rela=
ting
to age, gender, ethnicity, religious affiliation or sexuality was collected.
The generated data like the recordings and transcripts were kept securely u=
ntil
the completion of this study and it was used purely only for the purposes of
the research project. It was important to let students know that the
investigation could be effective and beneficial for their examinations as it
might have helped them to have a better and deeper conceptual understanding=
.
4. FINDINGS
The findings =
of
the think-aloud session and written assessment helped to answer the questio=
ns
of this research. Table 1 shows the three writing tasks that students were
asked to think-aloud.
First, studen=
ts,
in pairs, read the selected passages aloud to monitor their understanding,
clarify the meaning of the unknown and look for context clues. There were s=
ome
questions about some vocabulary words but, in general, the comprehension of=
the
texts was good.
|
Questions |
Session 1 students’ observations |
Session 2 students’ observation |
|
Do =
you
have any questions about the vocabulary? (Teacher) |
Not
really…. te has mudado but
otherwise I think I get pretty much what is about (Student 1, task 1) Eh…=
cuenta cómo te sientes. You have to write about your new routine and what is new
(Student 1, task 2) |
Te has mudado
(Student 3, task 1) Not
sure what mudado is (Student =
4,
task 1) Maybe acabas de (Student 4, task 2) |
Table 2. Session 1 protocols
It can be seen
from table 2 that three
Since students
did not encounter many unfamiliar words, they were asked then to verbally
express their thoughts about the appropriate text type for each task taking into account the context, purpose and audience =
of the
task. The four students demonstrated good conceptual understanding. The cho=
ice
of the text type was appropriate for each task, however, students in sessio=
n 2
had two possible options for task 1.
Table 3 shows
that students in session 1 selected firmly the blog for the first task while
students in session 2 were doubting between the blog and the personal diary.
Strategic questions were addressed in order to h=
elp
students to improve their conceptual understanding and complete the task
successfully. It can be seen that students 3 and=
4
gained a better understanding of the text and chose the blog for the specif=
ic
context, purpose and audience. For the second task, the four students selec=
ted
the personal diary:
(1) T=
here
is no audience and you are just
(2) I
agree, write a text to describe your impressions which seems to be for your=
self
(student 4).
(3) I
think it’s for yourself so it’s a diary (student 2).
(4) Y=
es,
because you arrive there and if you want to write about those things, the
people are already there and you don’t really ne=
ed to
write to them because they live there (student 1).
|
Questions |
Session 1 students’ observations |
Session 2 students’ observations |
|
We have thr=
ee
text types: a blog, a letter and a personal di=
ary
which one do you think it’s the most appropriate for the context, purpose=
and
audience? (Teacher, task 1) Who is the
audience? (Teacher, task 1) Does a pers=
onal
diary have an audience? (Teacher, task 1) What are the
conventions we need to use to write a blog? I mean the layout of the blog
(Teacher, task 1) Do you need=
to
use formal or informal language to write a blog? |
I think of a blog because…it says to compare my impressions with o=
ther
young people. Writing a letter and a personal diary, you can’t compare it
with other people (Student 1) Yes, the same reason (Student 2) Jóvenes (Students 1 & 2) - You need a title, a date, an introduction, a b=
ody
and a closing. Sometimes there is the author’s name (Student 1) I agree (Student 2) Informal… I feel like blogs are more casual, a conversation between
the readers and the writer (Student 1) I agree (Student 2) |
Yo creo blog, …well the task asks you to write
about the area where you live and how you spend the time and what you like
about it and you can share that with other rea=
ders
who possibly want to move to that area as well (Student 4) It could also be a personal diary because you can also write perso=
nal
stuff. It’s between a blog and a personal diary (Student 3) I agree (Student 4) There is no audience… Oh, yes, there is... jóvenes de tu ciudad… so blog it’s the best text type because=
you
don’t know who they are and it’s the best way to communicate with them
(Student 3) No, a diary is more a reflection for yourself (Student 4) Maybe people who are very close to you… when you die
and they want to read about yourself hehe… A title, the name of the person writing the blog, some blogs have =
the
timing sometimes (Student 3) There are also base paragraphs in a blog. It’s easy to read (Stude=
nt
4) - |
Table 3. Session 1 & 2 protocols
For task 3,
students 1 and 2 were clear that the letter was the correct text type for t=
he
task, but students 3 and 4 were doubting between the letter and the text
message as it can be seen in table 4.
|
Questions |
Session 1 students’ observations |
Session 2 students’ observations |
|
What
text type is appropriate for this task: a message, a =
letter
and a personal diary? Are
there formal or informal letters? What
does mensaje de texto mean? |
Pos=
sibly
a letter because you have to write to your fam=
ily
(student 2) Yes
(student 1) - - |
I d=
on’t
think it’s a personal diary and c=
arta
is too formal for the family so it should be mensaje de texto (student 3) Yea=
h…Posiblemente mensaje de texto o cart=
a (student
4) Yes,
but it doesn’t specify it. I’m not sure exactly what mensaje de texto is (student 3) Inf=
ormal
carta for families (student 4=
) Text
message (student 4) I do
carta probably because it describes stuff about your college and fits wel=
l to
a letter. Text messages seem to be shorter (student 4) Yes
(student 3) |
Table 4. Sessions 1 & 2 protocols
Again, studen=
ts
answered some strategic questions which benefited to expand their knowledge=
of
the different text types. They gave reasons for the par=
ticular
choice of the text type- message/letter- and applied their conceptual
understanding by making connections with the context, purpose and audience.
They continued thinking-aloud the layout and language conventions of the
selected text type- an informal letter which helped them to organise their
ideas and structure their writing before the assessment.
For the second
part of the research, students had to complete a written assessment which
assessed the ability to communicate in writing for a variety of purposes. <=
span
class=3DGramE>In order to fulfil the requirements of this assessment,
students needed to show, through their use of text type, register and style,
that they understood the concepts of audience, context, purpose, meaning and
variation (Language ab initio guide, 2020). The aim of the second research =
was
to compare students’ thinking processes with their writing performance.
Students had to choose a task and write between 70-150 words using the
appropriate tone and register and including the layout and language convent=
ions
of the chosen text type. The think-aloud session helped students to develop
their conceptual understanding as they chose the appropriate text type for =
the
task, expressed ideas with fluency and accuracy and communicated clearly and
effectively. Their responses incorporated some of the conventions of the
selected text type. All students achieved a high mark in their written
assessment, but only student 2 scored 15 out of 15 based on three assessment
criteria: language, message and conceptual
understanding. Before using the think-aloud method in the classroom, studen=
ts'
written grades were between 9-10 out of 15. After the think-aloud protocols,
student 1, student 3 and student 4 improved their marks by scoring 12-13 ou=
t of
15.
5. DISCUSSION
The aim of th=
is
research was to have knowledge of students’ understanding of the different =
text
types and enhance their conceptual understanding. Therefore, the questions =
of
this research were related to students’ understanding of the different text
types and the evidence of understanding that think-aloud provides. Accordin=
g to
the think-aloud session protocols and the written assessment, students
demonstrated good conceptual understanding. They were able to choose the
appropriate text type for each task by making explanations, observing their=
comprehension and activating their prior knowledge. The
think-aloud strategy helped to monitor students’ thinking processes and get=
a
better sense of their understanding. Students read aloud, asked for clarification and looked for context clues to make sen=
se of
what they read. Taking into account Bhatia’s
suggestions (2014), students placed the genre-text in a situational context=
by
looking at their prior experience of the world, knew the layout of the pers=
onal
text types (blog, personal diary and letter), defined the audience and used=
the
language conventions of the text type.
According to =
the
findings, it can be seen that the think-aloud st=
rategy
positively developed the comprehension skills of students and had a positive
effect on their knowledge of the text types and conceptual understanding. T=
his
result can be compared with the investigation of sixth grade students’
think-aloud processes while solving a mathematical problem verbally. In the
opinion of Özcan, Imamoglu and Katmer Bayrakli (2017), the use of the
think-aloud method empowered the results of their study. Sönmez and Sulak (2018) also agree that the te=
aching
of the thinking-aloud strategy has positively developed the reading
comprehension skills of 4th grade primary school students.
Another aim of
this study was to explain why it is important to teach different text types=
in
the classroom and how it can be taught in an efficient manner. As stated in=
the
literature, students are not frequently taught techniques to read (Broer,
Aarnoutse, Kieviet & Leeuwe, 2002). To overcome this problem, Ness (201=
6)
encourages teachers to monitor students’ comprehension, for example, by
thinking aloud. Wilhelm (2001) also suggests, among other things, to read t=
he
text aloud to students while modelling some strategies such as questioning,
identifying the main idea of the text and using prior knowledge, and to
reinforce the think-aloud. Bearing in mind the objectives of language
acquisition courses discussed in the literature review, the think-aloud
strategy helped students to understand, analyse, and reflect upon the text
types. They were able to respond appropriately, developing a coherent and
organised response in the written assessment.
6. CONCLUSION
T=
his
study was crucial to help students to understand the meaning of the written
tasks and choose the appropriate text type for the context, purpose
and audience. Based on research findings, students developed their conceptu=
al
understanding of language, by communicating clearly and effectively, understanding and using language to a specific context=
and
audience, and expressing ideas with fluency and accuracy. Students were
encouraged to make use of their critical thinking and transfer those skills=
to
the target language. The think-aloud strategy is an effective technique in
teaching the IB language acquisition courses and it should be promoted in order to improve students’ comprehension of the dif=
ferent
text types. Sönmez and Sulak (2018) suggest in their research that further
studies could examine the effect of the think-aloud strategy on speaking, <=
span
class=3DGramE>writing and listening skills. The results of the writt=
en
assessment also show the positive effect of think-aloud strategy on student=
s’
writing skills. Students performed very well, demonstrated good writing
<= o:p>
T=
his
investigation has been addressed within the settings of a specific context.
Thus, future studies can be carried out to address the same research proble=
m in
different settings or context. In addition, more investigations can be
conducted on how to teach students to recognize different text types and bo=
ost
their conceptual understanding.
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